National Heroes

National Heroes

King Prithvi Narayan shah

Prithvi Narayan shah was the king of Gorkha. He was a great politician, and a successful and farsighted leader. During his regime, Nepal was fragmented into several small kingdoms called Baise and Chaubise Rajyas. British India Company was rulling over India at that timeand wanted to capture Nepal. He was anxious for the security of those scattered small kingdoms of Nepal. He iniated unification campaign and unified several kingdoms of Nepal. After conquering the Kathmandu valley, he made it the capital of the country. Therefore he is also called as the 'Founder of Modern Nepal'.

King Ram Shah

Ram shah was a king of Gorkha. He was famous for his economic, social, judicial, and administrative reforms. He introduced  standard system of weight, scale, and measurement in his state. He introduced Mana, Pathi, Dhak, Taraju, etc. He fixed the rate of interest, systematized the irrigation system and made the rule for punishing the criminals. He initiated a good system of justice and the rule of law in the state. The proverb,"If you are deprived of justice, go to Gorkha" was popular during his time.

Pasang Lhamu Sherpa

Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, a women of courage and determination, was the first Nepali women to the summit of Mt. Everest. She successfully climbed Mt.Everest on 10th Baisakh 2050 BS. Unfortunately, while she was returning from the summit, she became a victim of avalanche and lost her life. She is the source of inspiration for all the nepalese women for their courage and determination to perform the adventurous activities to glorify the nation. Her victory over the Mt.Everest has proved that courage and high degree of confidence makes people achieve their goal successfully no matter wheather they are male or female. Her name was inclided in the list of national heroes on 90th Baisakh 2059 BS.

Mahaguru Falgunanda

Mahaguru Falgunanda Lingden was born on 25th Kartik 1942 BS in a Limbu family in Illam. He was a great spirtual leader as well as a social worker. He is known as Mahaguru (the great teacher) especially among the Kirant Limbuus. He is remembered for his phenomenal socio-cultural and religious messages in the Limbu ethnicity. Non-violence and religion was his key messages. He passed ten-points resolution called Satya Dharma Muchulka and announced various codes of conducts to be followed by Kirant community. They were related to ethnic, economic, social and religiousreforms in the Limbu community. 

His advices were to eradicate the prevailing social evils among the kirants such as consuming alcohol, gambling, sacrificing animals, birds etc. He encouraged the people to establish temples and schools in every village to educate children of Kirant community and to be honest and guided by good deeds. He also built many shrines. He was declared as a national hero on 16th Mangsir, 2006 BS.

 Bhimsen Thapa 

Bhimsen Thapa was the first prime minister of Npeal. He was a brave warrior and good administrator of the country. He was a true patriot with good vision. He was against the British imperialism. He brought about many reforms in social, economic, religious and military fields in the country. Under his effective leadership, Nepali soldiers fought bravely against British Indian power during Anglo-Nepal war. he had continued the unification campaign initiated by Prithvi Narayan Shah and extended the western border toSutlaj. Despite the efforts made by his opponents to harm him, he earned a good name for his love of nationalism.

World heritage sites in Nepal

World heritage sites in Nepal

Lumbini

Lumbini is the birthplace of Gautam Buddha. It is the most sacred place of the Buddhists from round the world. There stands a famous stone pillar erected by Indian Emperor Ashoka, who visited the place in 245 BC. Pushkarini Pond and Mayadevi Temple are also very famous. The lumbini Development committee of 13 countries including Nepal was formed in 1970 AD to carry out a master plan for the development of this area. Beautiful stupas, monastries, vihars, libraries, a museum and a research centre are constructed there. Many countries such as China, Myanmar, Japan, Vietnam, South Korea, India, Thailand, France and Germany have erected vihars there. Lumbini was included in the list of the World Heritage Sites in 1997 AD.

Pashupatinath Area

Situated on the bank of the Bagmati in Kathmandu, the Pashupati Area is a very holy place of the Hindus in Nepal and abroad. It includes Pashupatinath Temple, Aryaghat (cremation bank), electric cremation, Deupatan, Jaybageshwari, Gaurighat, Kutumbahal, Gaushala, Pingalasthan and the area around the Shleshmantak forest. The Pashupatinath temple is built in the pagoda style with golden roof. There are about 492 temples, shrines, chaityas, etc. and about 1000 Shivalingas in the area. Ancient art, architectures, sculpture and carvings are very attractive. The Pashupati Development Trust works to preserve and promote this area. It was included in the world Heritages Sites IN 1979 ad. 

Sagarmatha National Park

Sagarmatha National Park covers an area of 1148 sq km and lies in Solukhumbu district of Sagarmatha zone. This park contains mountain peaks like Everest, Lhotse, Choyu, Nuptse, Pumori, Amadablam, and some villages. These peaks have long been popular among mountaineers from throughout the world. Several kinds of vegetation such as rhododendrn, pine, birch, spruce, etc. and birds and animals like wild yak, musk deer, red panda, snow leopard, Huimalayan black bear and lophophorus are found there. It was listed in the world heritage sites in 1979 AD. 

Chitwan National Park

Chitwan Nartional Park is situated in Chitwan, Makwanpur and Parsa districts. It is nearly 120km south-west of Kathmandu and occupies an area of 932 sq km of forests, marshes and rivers. It preserves rare and endangered animals like one-horned rhino, spotted tiger, elephant, leopard, bear, crocodile and birds like hornbill and peacock. It is a famous destination for tourists. It was recognized as a World Heritage Site in 1984 AD. 

Hanumandhoka Durbar Square

This famous monument zone was the administrative centre of many Malla and Shah kings. It lies in the heart of Kathmandu. King Pratap Malla erected the statue of Hanuman (monkey god) in this place in the medieval period. Since the it is called Hanumandhoka. One can see the masterpiece of Nepali art and architecture there. Besides Hanumandhoka, Basantapur palace, Taleju temple, museum, Kumarighar, Kasthamandap, a huge bell and kettle-drum are other attractions there. It is a famous tourist destination in the valley. It was included in the list of world heritage sites in 1979 AD.  The 2015 earthquake destroyed many structures there such as Kasthamandap completely or in part. Reconstruction of the site has started. 

Patan Durbar Square

It was another palace area of the Malla Kings. It is located in Lalitpur district. Here lies the famous Krishna temple with 21 golden pinnacles. The site cosists of, besides the palace and Krishna temple, Bhimsen Temple, statue of Yognarendra Malla, Mahabaudha and Taleju Temple. Patan Durbar Square exhibits masterpiece of the art and architecture of the Malla period. It is a famous tourist destination. It was recognized as a World Heritage Sites in 1997 AD along with six other cultural heritages of the Kathmandu Valley.

Baudhanath Stupa

Located in the east of Kathmandu, it is one of the most sacred places for the Buddhists. It is believed to have been built around the fifth century. This stupa contains valuable inscriptions. There are more than 45 Buddhist monasteries in this area. It is visited by thousands of pilgrims every year. It was included in the world heritage sites in 1979 AD. The stupa was completely destroyed by the 2015 earthquake. As a matter of pleasure, it was soon reconstructed. Actually, this was the first heritage site to get restored after the quake destruction. This was possible and cooperation of the local Buddhist community. 

National Luminaries of Nepal | Contribution of National Luminaries to the Nation

National Luminaries of Nepal

The personalities who have contributed for the existing, development and prosperity to the nation significantly are know as National figures\luminaries. The motherland has given birth to to many people with outstanding charisma who have made exemplary contribution in different sectors. The government of Nepal has declared them as National luminaries for their great deeds. 

King Janak was an ascetic king of Mithila. He was a learned man, a sage and a great and a great philosopher of spiritualism. He devoted his life for the promotion of spiritual philosophy and other religious activities. 

Anglo Nepal War

Anglo Nepal War

Nalapani is a place about five miles north of Dehradum in India which was under the control of Nepal before Anglo-Nepal war. A fort was built about the height of 600 feet in a small hill of it, which was known as the fort of Khalanga.

During Anglo-Nepal war, Blabhadra Kunwar was deployed to protect Nalapani. He had to safeguard the fort with limited Gorkhali soldiers of about 600 including women and children. Major General Gillespie and Colonel Maubi along with 3500 strong British troops invaded the fort of Khalanga from four different sides. They were well equipped with modern arms and ammunitions having 11 cannons and many guns. Major General Gillespie sent a letter to Balabhadra Kunwar a night before attacking the fort, asking him to surrender. But Balabhadra Kunwar tore it and replied, "I'm not in the habit of reading letters at midnight. I will meet Gillespie soon."

The very next morning, the British troops attacked the fort by firing the guns and cannons. The Nepalese troops including women and children responded them with bullets, stones, arrows, logs. Lieutenant Ellis of British force was hit by the bullet from Nepalese troops and was killed. Nepalese bravery in the war made the British troops disheartened. Due to this, Major General Gillespie was compelled to march himself towards the fort. He started marching to the fort with his helmet on one hand and a sword on the other. He was also shot dead by Nepalese force. In total, 266 British soldiers were killed in the battle. the British troops could no longer face the Nepalese attack and compelled to retreat and fled to Dehradun.

The British force attacked the fort second time with much preparation under the command of Colonel Maubi in mid-November 1814 AD. In counter attack, Nepalese force responded them with stones, logs bullets. Nepalese troops including women and children fought this battle very bravely.

Colonel Maubi, realized that it was almost impossible to defeat Nepalese force through direct attack. Therefore, he adopted a trick. They surrounded the Khalanga fort and cut off the water supply to the fort. Since the water supply was cut off, Nepalese force started dying of thirst. Nepalese force couldn't withstand thirst and odour of corpse lying hither and thither. Having no other options , Nepalese men and women came out from the fort with bare swords in their hands on 30th November 1814 AD. They advanced towards the nearby brook to quench their thirst without caring about the cannons and bullets of the enemies. They quenched their thirst and moved on to Jeetgadh. Before advancing to Jeetgadh, Balabhadra Kunwar roared to British, "It was impossible for you to conquer the fort just now we are leaving it on our own will". Although the British captured Khalanga fort and destroyed it, they were much surprised of the bravery displayed by Balabhadra Kunwar and his handful soldiers. They erected a stone inscription to say tribute to the brave Gorkhali soldiers, which inscribes:"This is inscribed as a tribute and respect for our gallant adversary BULBUDDER, commander of the fort and HIS BRAVE GURKHAS". 

Renaissance- History | Introduction to Renaissance

Renaissance

Renaissance is derived from French word which means rebirth or revival. This word was used to mean the revival of the Roman and the Greek art, architecture, literature, science, astronomy, philosophy, and Romanticism during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. It began with the rediscovery of Greco-Roman civilization which had been neglected during the middle ages.

The Age of Renaissance

In the history of human civilization, the transition period between the Medieval age and Modern age is called the Age of Renaissance. It became an intellectual movement that spread from Italy to all over Europe. This period covers the niddle of the 14th century to the end of 16th century. During this period scholars, thinkers, philosophers, scientists, artists brought an intellectual awakening. They appealed and encouraged the people to have a new and rational approach towards life. All these contributed to the significant developments in the fields of art, architecture, science and geographical discovers that made the quality of human life far better. It focused attention upon secular society rather than the Medieval preoccupation with the church and religions affairs.

Renaissance Scholars and Literature

The renaissance scholars and writers dealt more with humanity than religion. That's why, they were called humanists. The great poet of Italy, Alighieri Dante (1265-1321) composed the famous epic, the Divine Comedy. In the Divine Comedy, Dante had satire the people of upper class. The other writers and scholars were Petrarch, Boccaccio and Niccole Machiavelli of Italy; Geoffrey Chaucer, Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, William Shakespeare and John Milton of England; Montaigne, Francois Rabelais and John Calvin of France; Cervantes, Lope de Vega and Calderon of Spain; Desiderius Erasmus of Holland and Martin Luther of Germany. Before them, most of the literatures were written in Greek and Latin. But, they wrote in their native language and changed the age old tradition.

Renaissance Music

Before renaissance, the music was basically religious or church oriented. It had religious meaning and purpose. During the renaissance period, it gradually got transformed from religious to humanity. In addition to vocal music, instrumental music also became popular. New musical instrument like Violin, flute etc. got introduced. Orchestral music and opera became very popular. 

Scientific Inventions

The renaissance period saw a great inventions, new ideas and concepts. The monk and astronomer from Poland, Nicolas Copernicus proved that the earth, the moon and the planets moved around the sun. The Italian astronomer, Galileo (1564-1642) invented telescope. The British scientist, Sir Isaac Newton explained the laws of motion and gravitation. English Physician, William Harvey found out the blood circulation in the human body. Dutch Biologist Anton Van made a single lens microscope and discovered protozoa and bacteria in the human body. Besides these, many new things such as radio, printing press, camera, bicycle, motor, railways etc. were invented.

Anglo Nepal war | Causes and consequences of Anglo-Nepal war

Anglo Nepal war

The war took place between Nepal and the British East India company in 1814 AD is known as Anglo-Nepal war. The British colonized India and wanted to colonize Nepal too through a business company called East India Company. Nepal didn't accept British policy and the war broke out. It continued for two years.

Major Causes

Economic Cause

• British wanted to extend their trade with Tibet through Nepal
• The British didn't like the act of strengthening Nepali troops.
• They were attracted to Nepal's richness in natural resources and minerals.

Natural Cause 

British were from the cooler and mild climate. It was difficult for them to stay in India due to it's hot climate. They found Nepal suitable for them to reside because of it's cooler climate. But Nepal government prohibited the entry of foreigners.

Political Cause

• Most of the defeated kings of Baise and Chaubise states went to take asylum in India. They wanted to regain their lost territory. therefore, they used to provide secret information to British-India and encouraged to attack Nepal.
• Bhimsen Thapa was the Prime Minister of Nepal during Anglo-Nepal war. he was against the British imperialism. he wanted to chase the British away not only from India but from whole Ais. He negotiated with the Indian states like Punjab, Maratha, Gwaliyar, Burma etc. to form a united organization of Asia against the British imperialism. Bhimsen Thapa was strengthening the power of Nepali troops by increasing weapons and providing trainings to soldiers. The British were alert of such activities and plan of Bhimsen Thapa and wanted to colonize Nepal too.

Growing strength of Nepal 

Nepal's boundary was extended from Tista in the East to Kangada in the west after unification. Such growing strength of Nepal threatened the British.

Immediate Cause

The border dispute of Butwal and Syuraj was the immediate cause of Anglo-Nepal war. Butwal and Syuraj were ruled by the king of Palpa under the condition of paying land revenue annually to Nawab. When palpa was annexed to Nepal, those territories too came under the rule Nepal and stopped paying revenue. But the British claiming those parts as their territory. meanwhile, the British Governor-General Marquis of Hastings sent a threatening letter to Nepal to evacuate those places immediately. The then Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa didn't respond to the letter. As a result, Hastings declared a war against Nepal on 1st November 1814 Ad (16 Kartik 1871 BS).

Nepali warriors fought the war with the British force bravely. it continued for two years. Eventually it couldn't go in favour of Nepal.

Consequences of Anglo-Nepal war

• Nepal was forced to sign unfair and one-sided Sugauli Treaty in humiliating condition on 4th March, 1816 AD (20th Falgun, 1872 BS).
• Heavy loss of lives and properties.
• Disappointment increased among all the Nepal.
• Nepal lost one-third of it's territory (places east of Mechi River and west of Mahakali).
• British got right to establish its embassy in Kathmandu, as a result, British interference in the internal affairs of Nepal started.
• Unification campaign of Nepal came to and end and conspiracy within the royal palace and politics of Nepal started.
• The recruitment of Nepalese people to British Army started.
• The provision made that Nepal couldn't involve in any European or American in the service without the permission of British.

Nepali Painting

Nepali Painting

The authoritative history of Nepalese art is believed to have started from Lichchhavi period. However, it can be said that the history of Nepali art wasstarted much earlier than Lichchhavi period based on available evidences. We have a long history of our art and culture. Nepalese artisans have been using their creative and excellent skill for designing the arts of the images of the gods, goddesses on paper, wall clothes, stone, metal, wood, etc. The art on paper, stone, copper and buildings are very popular in the world. We should be very proud with our traditional arts as they reflect our customs, traditions and religions.

Categories of Painting

Book painting (Grantha Chitra)

The painting found on book are called book painting. They are also known as treatise painting. Traditionally, these types of painting were made on copper plate, bhojpatra, tadpatra (palm leaf), etc. Nowadays, due to development of technology they are sketched on paper. Now most of the paintings are available in paper. The book paintings older 11th century are not available with us. Artists used to use Tamrapatra (copper plate), Tadpatra (palm leaf), and Bhojpatra (bark of the tree) for writing the scripts in the past. Such book used to have 12 to 18 inches length and 3 to 4 inches breadth having artists designs and paintings either on the middle or at the edge and writings of the both sides. 

The book painting 'Astasaharika Pragyaparamita' made on 10th century is considered as the oldest book painting in Nepal. It ahs a picture Pancha Buddha, Chatustara (four stars) on the side and Pragyaparamita Bajrasatwa  and Goddesses Durga on the other side on a Tadpatra (palm leaf), 'Biswastantra' of 11th century, 'Vishnu Dharmagrantha' of 12th century, 'Pancharakshya Grantha' of 13th century are remarkable book painting among the ancient book paintings of Nepal. 'Pancharakshya Grantha' made in Tadpatra is archieved in the Bhaktapur painting museum. THis book has the paintings of 'Pancha Buddha' and 'Pancha Tara'. 

Scroll Painti (Pauva Chitra)

The painting drawn in a roll of canvas or cloth are called scroll paintings. The scroll painting is known as Pauva Chitra or Patta Chitra in Kathmandu valley and scroll painting made in northern parts are known as Thanka.

Wall painting 

The sketches or pictures drawn on the walls of temples, monasteries, houses, shrines, caves, etc. are called wall painting. People from different communities in Nepal practice wall painting. They normally draw the pictures of gods, goddesses, animals, birds, etc. on the walls of their house or to hang such pictures on the wall. It is believed that having such paintings on the wall could drive away the evil spirits, misfortunes, ghosts and witches. However, wall painting nowadays, have become the means of decoration rather than avoiding evil spirits and witches.

Wall painting are based on religious theme. They are common in both in Buddhism and Hinduism. Such paintings are still available in ancient temples, palaces, inns, and public buildings. They are of great importance because they reflect our history, traditional lifestyles, norms and values. The tradition of pasting a painting of Naag every year during Naag Panchami in the main entrance of the house of Hindus is the main symbol of continuation of wall painting in our society. 

The Mithila painting of Janakpur is an example of wall painting. It is very popular in the Terai region of Nepal. It is also called Madhuvani painting as it is believed to have started from Madhuvani of India. It is widely practiced in Maithili community of Terai region. Mostly women make the painting of Durga, Gauri, Ganesh, Krishna, Parvati, Ram etc. in their traditional way. Maithili paintings may have the pictures of peacocks, cows, snakes, holy plants, elephants, chariots etc. having their own symbolic meanings as well. It is very popular in international market as well, which has become the source of income. Their art is their identity that reflects their culture and way of life.

Nepali Sculpture ( Murtikala)

Nepali Sculpture (Murtikala)

Sculpture is an art of making different shapes and images carving the solid materials like glasses, metals, stones, clay, wood and wax. Like paintings, sculptures are also related to our culture and religion. There is a tradition of making the statue of gods and goddesses from metals or stones in Nepal. This tradition was initiated from the ancient time.

The history of Nepali sculpture is very long. The Lichchhavi period is considered to be the beginning of sculpture in Nepal. Image of 'Baman Trivikram' constructed during the time of lichchhavi King Mandev is the oldest dated image available today. History depicts that there was an influence of Nepalese sculpture  even in Tibet and China during Lichchhavi period. The image of Garudnarayan in Changu, the image of Vishnuvikranta in Lajimpat and Pashupatinath, idol of Vishnu in Budhanilkantha are some of the excellent examples of stone sculptures of Lichchhavi period. It is said that Lichchhavi King Mandev was the king of artistic taste and did a lot to improve their certification that they were the sculptures of Kirant period. The sculptures of of Birupkshya, located at Aaryaghat of Pashupatinath temple and Yakshya are also considered as the oldest sculptures of Nepal. they are considered to have been constructed during Kirant Period.

The tradition of making sculpture initiated in Lichchhavi period reached into the climax in the Malla period.It is also called the golden period of Murtikala. The malla period was more popular for making the statues of metal, stones and wood. There are images of Ganesh, Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Laxmi, Sarswoti, Buddha (name of goddesses) etc. in and around Kathmandu valley that were built in Malla period . The images of Mahishasur Mardini of pharping, Vishnu of Bhaktapur, Bhairav of kritipur, Suryanath of Banepa, Garuda of Mahankal, Narsimha of Hanumandhoka etc. are some examples of the sculptures of Malla period.

Ranas and Shah kings did not take much in development of sculptures. However, construction of some statues of Rana Prime ministers and Shah Kings, martyrs and writers in different places of Nepal continued the tradition of making sculptures to some extent. The tradition of erecting different gods, goddesses and martyrs is still in practised. For instance, making statue of Durga, Kali, Sarswoti etc. from clay and straw during festival times is popular in the terai region. However, the work is seasonal. There are several institutions, associations and individuals involved tp promote the art of painting and sculpture even today. There is separate fine arts campus called Lalitkala Campus in Kathmandu. It provides formal education on painting and sculpture. Nepal Academy and the associations under it like Nepal Association of Fine arts have been actively working to promote fine arts and sculptures in Nepal.

  

Nepali Architecture

Nepali Architecture

Architecture is the art of planning, designing, and constructing buildings, houses, palaces, forts etc. It is called Vaastukala in Nepali language. Vaastu refers to the place of dwelling and Kala is art. Therefore , the planning, designing and constructing the place of dwelling is called Vaastukala. The study of architecture includes both the religious and residential constructions in Nepal. The study includes the study of temples, monasteries, palaces, inns, forts, etc.

Nepal has a long history of architectures in the world from the scientific and cultural point of view. The existing temples, palaces, and buildings of Nepal demonstrate excellent pieces of Nepali 

architecture and superb design, skill, idea, and devotion of our ancestors in this field.

Malla period is considered to be the golden area in the history of Nepal in the development of architecture. It is said that Nepali architecture had great influence to other countries as well during that period.

Nepali architecture can be divided into three main categories according to the styles of construction.

Pagoda style

The Pagoda style of architecture is the multi-storied temples with multiple roofs. The border base and gradually narrowing top is the unique feature of Pagoda style architecture. Pinnacle (Gajur) is palced at the top. The ground floor is used to place the gods and goddesses to be worshipped. the upper stories are used for storing the properties of the temple. Pagoda style is the ancient style of Nepali architecture. It is believed to have been introduced in Nepal in the beginning of the thirteenth century. 

Pashupatinath Temple

It is said that Araniko and his friends were expert in constructing buildings of Pagoda style. They even spread Pagoda style in Tibet and China by constructing many magnificent buildings. Mangriha of Mandev, kailshkut Bhawan of Amshuvarma and Bhadradiwas Bhawan of Narendradev, Dattatreya and Nyatapola of Bhaktapur, Kasthamandap of Kathmandu, Pashupatinath temple, Taleju Palanchwok Bhagawati, Nine storey palace of Basantapur, Nuwakot palace etc. are some of the examples of the Pagoda style.

Stupa or Chaitya Style

Stupa is a mainly Buddhist style of architecture. It is quite different from Pagoda style. It has flat bottom and shrunk top but no roof like in pagoda style. Stupa or Chaitya is a monument in hemispherical dome that keeps golden pinnacle with Buddha's eyes painted on the outside. Stupas have praying wheels around them. they are erected for the memory of important Buddhists personalities. Some Buddhists even burry some things related to their community under the land and build monuments over it. Some of the magnificent examples of Stupa or Chaitya style of architectures of Nepal are : Ashok stupa of Patan, Baudhanath, Swayambhumnath, Charumati stupa of Kathmandu, Mahaboudha, Mayadevi temple of Lumbini etc. Emperor Ashoka of India is believed to have introduced Stupa style of architecture in Nepal. Ashoka Stupa of Patan is believed to be the oldest stupa of Nepal.

Boudhanath stupa

Shikhar Style

The Shikhar style architecture is also our traditional architecture. The temples or buildings of Shikhar style look like the pyramid. They are roofless with several towering and tapering tops with golden pinnacles on them. they are constructed by using stones. The bases of such temples or buildings are broader and the tops are narrower. this style is believed to have entered Nepal from India. Krishna mandir of Patan, built by king Siddhi Narshigh  Malla, is the best examples of Shikhar style. Some other temples of shikhar style are: Shiva temple of Indrachwok, Kathmandu, Mahaboudha temple of patan, Batsalyadevi temple  of Bhaktapur, Pratappur and Anantapur temples of Swayambhu etc. 

Singha Durbar

Apart from above mentioned styles, dome Mughal and European styles are also used in Nepali architecture. Nepalese architectures were influenced by European style during Rana rule. Singha Durbar, Keshar mahal, Narayanhiti palace, etc are the examples built in European style. Janaki temple of Janakpur is an excellent example of the architecture built in Mughal style.

Election process in Nepal

Election process in Nepal

Election is considered the backbone of democracy and Nepal is a democratic country. Elections for the national and regional parliaments and local bodies are held in Nepal. Besides, elections are also held to fulfil special posts  like President and Vice President. All these elections are conducted by some authorities.

Election commission office 

Authorities that conduct election

• The election commission -in the centre
• The election official -in the election constituency
• The polling official (or voting) -at polling station

The Election commission

The election commission under the chief election Commissioner to conduct elections of various levels such as the federal and state level parliaments, executives of rural municipalities and districts. There are subordinates for assistance such as election officials and polling officials. 

The Election Official

When the date of an election is announced the election commission appoints a number of election officials who conduct the election at different places. When the result of the election is published, their appointment terminates.

The Polling Official

In order to conduct elections, polling officials are appointed. The polling officials may be from the civil servants provided by the Government of Nepal. The polling official organizes the polling booth, provides security measures, starts and completes the election in time according to laws. When a serious complaint is made about the election process, the polling official stops or postpones 

the election and investigates personally and takes proper decision.

 The Electoral Roll

The electoral roll is the list of the citizens who have right to vote. It is updated every year. A person for enrollment as a voter of Nepal must:

• be a citizen of Nepal,
• reach the age of 18 years,
• have a sound mind

Polling Booth and Sub-polling Booth

Polling booth and sub-polling booth are set up at several places in a constituency where the voters cast their votes. The place for the booth and sub-booth is chosen keeping in view the convenience of the people.

Candidates

Candidates are the person who contest for a seat when there is an election. If a candidate has no rival, he/she is declared the uncontested winner. When there are more candidates than one, the election takes place. The candidate must have the qualifications for the candidacy.

Qualifications

• Nepali citizen
• Over 25 years of age for the House of Representatives and over 35 years for the National Assembly (over 45 years for the President and Vice President, 25 years for State Assembly and 21 years for local level governments i.e. legislature and executives of rural municipalities (RM) and municipalities)
• Not punished for any criminal offense of moral degradation,
• Not disqualified in any way by the laws; and 
• Not holding a non-political post paid from state treasure.

Voter's Identity Card

All the citizens who are qualified (at least 18 years) get voter's identity card for an election. Those without such card might not be allowed to use their right to vote. So voter's identity card is important.

Types of Elections

Constituent Assembly Elections (Sambidhan Saba Nirbachan)

As the term itself suggests, a constituent assembly election is an election held to choose the memners of a constituent assembly which is establishd for the purpose of formulating a constitution. We have had two constituent assembly elections in Nepal: the first in 2064 BS and the other in 2070 BS. These types of eklections are very rare. Even the second CA elections in Nepal were not expected.

Referendum (Janamat Sangraha)

Referendums are different from ordinary elections thought people cast their votes. In referendum, they are asked to choose one of the two or few options for reaching a decision. For example, Nepali voters had to choose between reformed party less panchayat system and multiparty system in 2037 BS. Referendum is an example of direct democracy because voters take decision over a given issues by themselves instead of electing their representatives who will later take decisions on behalf of the voters.

General Elections (Aam Nirbachan)

General elections are common forms of elections. Usually, a general election is held for establishing a legislative body i.e. parliament. General elections are regularly at an interval of a certain time. In Nepal we have a constitutional management for holding general elections (that of the House of Representatives)  every five years.

Mid-term Elections (Madhyabadhi Nirbachan)

Mid- term elections are the elections held in the mid-term or before the completion of the term of a particular elected body. For example, we had mid-term election of our parliament in 2051 before the term of the House of Representatives elected in 2048 BS could complete in 2053 BS.

By Elections (Upa Nirbachan)

By elections are held during the term of a particular elected body. For example, if a member of the parliament dies or resigns or gets terminated for legal reasons and his post turns vacant, a by electection is held to fulfill the vacant seat.

Regional and Local Election ( Kshetra ra Staniya Nirbachan)

As for Nepal, the elections of the state assembly (legislature of each state ) can be called regional elections. Similarly. elections of local government units such as rural municipalities (RM) and municipalities are local elections.

History of Nepal - The decade of 2007 BS-2017 BS

History of Nepal-The decade of 2007 BS-2017 BS

The Mohan Shumsher-led coalition government approved the Interim Government Act 2007 BS on Chaitra 17, 2007 BS. It was the first constitution of the country regarding its implementation. The constitution had 7 parts, 73 articles and 3 schedules. It was enforced on Chaitra 29, 2007 BS. This constitution had the following salient features:

• First constitution to be enforced.
• Drafted by the Rana-Congress coalition government and promulgated by the King.
• Democratic nature
• Aimed at Holding constituent assemble elections
• Provision of fundamental rights, Public service Commission, Auditor General, Adult Franchise, etc.

This government could not work smoothly. It was an unnatural coalition and was doomed to fail. The Ranas and the Congressmen were never on good terms. The Ranas were trying to restore their lost power. Bharat Shumsher with the help of some soldiers came to attack BP Koirala but in vain. This is called revolt of Khukuri  Dal. The congress felt that they could not work with the Ranas so they all resigned on Kartik 25, 2008 BS. This forced Mohan Shumsher to resign the following day. Then the King invited Matrika Prasad Koirala, the president of the Nepali Congress, to form a cabinet on Mangsir 1, 2008 BS. This cabinet considered of 14 ministers -8 from the Nepali congress and 6 independent. The cabinet was entrusted with the following responsibilities.

World war II : Major events and aftermaths

World war II : Major events and aftermaths

Before the formal declaration of the war, Germany had captured Anschlus (Austria) and Czechoslovakia. Following the invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, Germany continued conquering territories. Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France all had been captured by the mid- 1940. Heavy battles took place (Battle of Britain) from August to November in which Britain was able to save about 350,000 troops troops trapped in Dunkirk. Having borne heavy loss, German force called off the invasion of Britain and captured Yugoslavia and Greece in April, 1941. Until the cold winter, Hitler began the 'Operation Barbarossa' -the invasion of Russia. German force reached almost the capital Moscow but had to retreat due to dreadful winter there.

Japan made a surprise attack on US Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 causing heavy loss of the American navy, 18 ships and 200 planes were destroyed and 3000 men were killed. This pulled the USA into violent war in the pacific. However, Japan had captured Singapore, Burma and Malaya by February, 1942. Then followed the Battle of Midway in June. The Japanese failed to make another surprise attack and had to retreat as the Americans began to advance.

The year 1943 AD gave a different turn to the war. Germans were badly defeated at Stalingrad in February. Italy surrendered in September and America won slow victory against the Japanese. Germans met humiliating defeat on June 6, 1944.

After months of preparation, Britain force had made powerful attacks and driven them from France and Belgium. As the Allied forces had entered Germany both from the west and east and reached the capital, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. But in the pacific Japan was still fighting. It would not easily yield. So America dropped atom bombs; first (Little Boy) over Hiroshima on August 6 and the second (Fat man) over Nagasaki on August 9. With the complete destruction of the two advanced cities Japan surrendered unconditionally on 14 August. Later on September 2, it signed an agreement called the Instrument of surrender.

World war II : Major causes

Major causes of world war II

World war II was fought between the axis consisting of Germany, Japan, and Italy and the Allies consisting of Great Britain, the United States, and USSR. France joined the allies on the very beginning day. The war was more widespread and devastating than world war I. This global war invited largest carnage and destruction in the world.

the primary cause of the world war II was the fret, humiliation and vengefulness of Germany. The league of Nations was established to prevent the further war but it could not. After 20 years of world war I, World war II commenced in 1939 AD and was fought for longer time till 1945 AD.

Major causes

Treaty of Versailles

The seeds of world war II were soon in the treaty of Versailles. Germany was extremely insulted by the treaty. Its empire was destroyed. Above all, Germany was not consulted in formulation of the treaty. The Germany feeling was never considered. When the French General read the terms, he said that there would be another war in twenty years. And it did happened so. Actually Germany was compelled to sign the treaty because foreign troops were present in Germany but it was vowed to take revenge.

Fanatical nationalism

After world war I, many European nations such as Germany had grown extreme sense of revenge on their enemies. The people became too much conscious of their nations and grew and extreme sense of patriotism. They gave unquestioning support to their rulers who exercised  absolute power and tried to regain the glory and greatness of their nations through territorial expansion. 

Rise of dictators

Admidst the situations of general dissatisfactions, economic hardship and unemployment, came Adolf Hitler to the power of Germany. He gave the slogan of extreme nationalism; the reunification of the pure German nation. He promised to regain the glory of Germany. The Germans, who had not forgotten the insult of the Treaty of Versailles, gave him tremendous support. They joined Nazi party. Hitler began to defy the treaty. Silencing opposition and spreading propaganda, he grabbed absolute power and started German militarization and armament. He began to reoccupy the lost territories. This brought confrontations with many European superpowers.

After the revolution of 1917 Ad, communists came to power in Russia and started influencing the world. In 1936 AD, Germany signed "Anti-communist pact" with Japan. The objective of this pact was to prevent the spread of communism in the world. In 1937 AD Italy joined the pact which was then called Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Alliance. Japan wanted to suppress the communist influence in China.

Japan was making rapid economic development and it needed market for its goods. So it also took the imperialistic policy. In 1931 AD it occupied Manchuria of China. By 1937 AD, it had won a very large part of China. As Germany and Italy had done, Japan also quitted the League of Nations leaving it all powerless and disarrayed.

Worldwide economic crisis

After world war I the whole world was seized with economic crisis. It was so because much had been wasted and most male youths had been killed in the war. So there was lack of labours to work in industries and agriculture. Starvation broke out in many war-ravaged areas. In this situation, the dictators such as Hitler and Mussolini could easily rise to power with their promises to give economic recovery through territorial expansions.

Failure of League of Nations 

The aim of the League of Nations was to settle the disputes of the world and maintain peace and security. But it could do nothing if a country disobeyed it. Though the US President Woodrow Wilson was the main architect, his country never joined the League. Germany, Italy, and Jpan also started attacking small and weak nations. Japan took possession of Manchuria and Italy captured Abyssinia (Ethiopia), but the League of Nations could do nothing. This further encouraged Japan. Hitler suspended the constitution and violated the Treaty of Versailles. He also occupied Rhineland and other territories lost in the former war. In this way the League of Nations completely failed and the war could not be prevented.

Spanish Civil War

Spain had a government of Liberals, Socialists and Communities. In 1936 when it tried to reform the land ownership and Catholic Church many army soldiers protested as rebel nationalists. They elected G.F. Franco as the leader and started fighting violently against the loyalists that favoured the government. The nationalists got support from Hitler and Mussolini while the loyalists from the Soviet Union. Eventually the nationalists won the Spanish Civil war in1939 and G.F. Franco came to power. In this way the Spanish war provided the European superpowers to test their weapons and strategy and thus it was the rehearsal of world war II.

Immediate cause

In 1939 AD Hitler demanded from Poland Danzig and the Polish Corridor which were given to Poland after the Treaty of Versailles but Poland refused. In the same year he signed a treaty with Russia. They agreed not to fight each other for ten years and to divide Poland between them. But on September 1, 1939 Hitler attacked Poland. It was 'blitzkrieg'-the lightning war. France and England demanded the withdrawal of Germany but in vain. Then declared war on Germany on behalf of Poland on September 3. This was the formal beginning of world war II.

world war I: Causes

Causes of world war I

World war I was the first human conflict with the biggest massacre in the world. Never before had human race fought such a devastating and contemptible war. This terrifying war was fought between two hostile groups competing for colonialism and imperialism. The war dtsrted in 1914 AD and lasted till 1918 AD. As the main warring nations, Britain, France, Russia, the United states and Italy fought Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. Innumerable lives and property were destroyed in the war. 

Major causes of the war

Secret treaties

A main cause of World War I were the secret treaties which had begun after Franco-Germany war. Otto Van Bismarck of Germany had taken a policy of expanding his territory by destroying France, etc. immediately after he became the chancellor in 1870. Accordingly, Germany attacked France and captured Alsace and Lorraine in 1871. In order to unally and isolate France, Bismarck signed  a secret treaty with Austria-Hungary in 1879 and with Italy in 1882. This is known as the Triple Alliance. Following the downfall of Bismarck, the first chancellor, France tried to rise again and signed a secret treaty with Russia in 1894 and with Britain in 1904. This is known as the Triple Entente. These treaties divided Europe into two hostile groups. Each group was suspicious of the other's motive. So, each began to strengthen their military force. Britain was anxious to see the increasing German force including the navy. So it had joined the alliance that France and Russia had made.

Otto van Bismarck

Competition for armaments

The tradition of armaments had begun from the French revolution. France started armament after it was defeated by Germany in 1870 AD. So Germany too, further strengthened its military force. For instance it had 4.2 million soldiers in 1914 AD. Apparently it was for security reason but, in fact, it was for war. Many European countries had become military camps. There was the environment of suspicion, fear and hatred. Every big country was proud of its military camps. Each country considered it and insult to surrender. This attitude was a major cause of world war I.

Extreme/fanatical nationalism

The unification of Italy was the result of nationalistic feeling. Other countries, too, were motivated by this feeling. Each wanted to surpass others in this field. It was the nationalistic feeling that caused competition between Germany and England to increase naval force. It was the same feeling that Germany took over the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and became enemy to France. Italy, too, wanted to take the territory where Italian was spoken.

Competition for colonies

In those days, every European nation wanted ro establish their power in other countries. England, France, Russia and Germany had their vast overseas colonies. They wanted to dominate more and more part of the world. They also needed more raw materials for their growing industries and markets to sell the mass products. But, they would be more hostile and unfriendlier to each other as everyone tried to establish their colony in a single territory. They had a cutthroat competition in course of strengthening their colonialism and imperialism. 

Role of Media

Sometimes, role of media deteriorates relations and cause conflicts. In the 19910s  European media were used for provocation and spreading propaganda. They circulated wrong messages. This practice not only increased hatred and hostility between nations but also made leaders and their public aggressive to their enemies. Military controlled Austro-Hungarian, Serbian and Germany media in particular were very ill-motivated and prejudiced. They provoked their citizens, grow bilateral hostility and increased the possibilities of war.

Balkan crisis

There wads a large Turk-controlled empire in the Balkan region. Turkey was gradually getting weaker and was thus known as the 

'Sick man of Europe'. Taking the advantage of declining Turk power, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro formed Balkan league and fought a war in 1912 AD against the mother country which was defeated. The war was known as the First Balkan War. But Bulgaria was not satisfied with the territory it got according to a treaty signed in England. Therefore, Bulgaria attacked its former allies in 1913 AD but was defeated. This is known as the Second Balkan War. Serbia later was seriously enraged by Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina. As a result, a secret organization called Black Hand Society was formed by serb nationalists who wanted the reunification of their nation. Black Hand was guided by its motto 'Unification or death'; 'Unity or Death'; Death of Tyranny!'

Immediate cause

The immediate cause of the war lay on the enmity between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. In 1908 AD Austria had annexed Bosnia Herzegovina (a part of Serbia) into its territory. Austria was trying to destroy Serbia at any cost. On June 28, 1914 AD, the Austrian Prince Archduke Franz Ferdinand along with his wife Sophie was on tour of Bosnia Herzegovina. Gavrilo Princip, a young member (19) of the Black Hand society shot the prince and his wife to death. Austria believed that the government of Serbia had hand in the murder. This event highly provoked the Austrian people. they began to prepare for war. On July 23, 1914 AD Austria put some conditions before Serbia demanding an immediate reply. 

Austria-Hungary wanted:

• Serbia to take full responsibility for the murder, though Princip was not Serbian but Bosnian. Austria claimed that the conspirators confessed to the murders being planned with Serbian approval and weapon.
• The right to police 'anti-Austrian' groups within Serbian.
• The right to prosecute these and other conspirators in Austrian courts.

The 48-hour ultimatum delivered to the Serbian foreign Ministry by the Austro-Hungarian ambassador to Serbia were very formidable (tough to deal with). However, Serbia conceded many of the conditions and was taking time for more considerations. It was consulting its allies including Russia. But Austria was not satisfied. The Austrian leaders and military officials were impatient for war. So on July 28, 1914 AD Austria attacked Serbia. This was the outbreak of the first World war because Serbia was backed (supported) by Britain and Russia.

Having fought for 4 years (1,565 days), Germany and its allies were badly defeated. German emperor William II fled to Holland leaving the country to be declared a republic.

World war I: Major Events and effects

Major events and effects of world war I

World war I was fought very violently. Machine guns, long-range artilleries, grenades, aeroplanes, armoured tanks, submarines and poisonous gas such as chlorine caused unbelievable casualties. The chlorine gas dissolves the lungs and kills in great agony. Armies fought in dreadful conditions such as the muddy trenches against the barbed wire fence. They would advance little through the no-man's land and soon had to retreat when 'enemies' attacked and advanced. Even the civilian population was not protected. Bombarding on cities killed many innocent people. As soldiers were killed and injured, older and younger men had to be dispatched. There wouldn't be any help easily available for the injured and killed.

In 1914 with appalling loss of life, Germany attacked Belgium and France but could not capture. In 1915 it captured the Polish capital of Warsaw. By 1916, it won many battles in European battlefronts. Italy joined the allies in the hope of territorial gains in may 1915. In 1917 Russian armies quitted the battlefields due to a revolution in their land. German attack on the US unarmed ships caused the United States to join Allies in 1917. With abundant support from the USA, the Allies began to make breakthroughs in 1918. Finally the central Powers surrendered in autumn 1918. German prisoners were captured and freed. German revolution declared it republic and its emperor fled to Holland. However, World War I was officially ended by an armistice signed in France on November 11 (at the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of eleventh month). 

Germany had to withdraw immediately from all occupied territories and surrendered all major weapons. Paris Peace Conference began on 18 January, 1919. Finally on June 28 1919, the treaty was signed with a proposal to institute the League of Nations. The treaty was designed by French Prime Minister  Clemenceau, British Prime minister Lloyd George George and US President Woodrow Wilson. It, however, could not be fair and sowed seeds of another world war. The League of Nations was also doomed to fail.

After the defeat of Germany in world war I, the treaty was signed between the victorious allies and Germany on June 28, 1919 in the Palace of Versailles in France. No consultation was made with Germany. Still Germany was compelled to sign. According to this treaty, Germany was blamed solely for the destruction and it was made to pay for the loss. Germany lost 13% of it's land and 6 million people. It had to cede the following territories to different nations as specified.

• Alsace and Lorraine to France
• Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium
• North Schleswig to Denmark
• Posen and west Prussia to Poland
• Upper Silesia to Poland
• Saar and Danzig area to the League of Nations
• The city of Memel to Lithuania, a new Baltic state
• All overseas colonies to the league of Nations

Palace of Versailles 

Restriction on Military

• German army was withdrawn from Rhineland; it was kept under Allied power for 15 years.
• Germany had to keep only 100,000 soldiers. New recruitment was restricted.
• Germany was not allowed to keep more than 24 warships.
• It was prohibited from manufacturing warships, tanks and aeroplanes.

Compensation

• Germany had to pay gold and other things worth 660 million pound for reparation.
• Coal production area of Saar was to be given to France for 15 years.