History of Nepal - The decade of 2007 BS-2017 BS

History of Nepal-The decade of 2007 BS-2017 BS

The Mohan Shumsher-led coalition government approved the Interim Government Act 2007 BS on Chaitra 17, 2007 BS. It was the first constitution of the country regarding its implementation. The constitution had 7 parts, 73 articles and 3 schedules. It was enforced on Chaitra 29, 2007 BS. This constitution had the following salient features:

• First constitution to be enforced.
• Drafted by the Rana-Congress coalition government and promulgated by the King.
• Democratic nature
• Aimed at Holding constituent assemble elections
• Provision of fundamental rights, Public service Commission, Auditor General, Adult Franchise, etc.

This government could not work smoothly. It was an unnatural coalition and was doomed to fail. The Ranas and the Congressmen were never on good terms. The Ranas were trying to restore their lost power. Bharat Shumsher with the help of some soldiers came to attack BP Koirala but in vain. This is called revolt of Khukuri  Dal. The congress felt that they could not work with the Ranas so they all resigned on Kartik 25, 2008 BS. This forced Mohan Shumsher to resign the following day. Then the King invited Matrika Prasad Koirala, the president of the Nepali Congress, to form a cabinet on Mangsir 1, 2008 BS. This cabinet considered of 14 ministers -8 from the Nepali congress and 6 independent. The cabinet was entrusted with the following responsibilities.

World war II : Major events and aftermaths

World war II : Major events and aftermaths

Before the formal declaration of the war, Germany had captured Anschlus (Austria) and Czechoslovakia. Following the invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, Germany continued conquering territories. Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France all had been captured by the mid- 1940. Heavy battles took place (Battle of Britain) from August to November in which Britain was able to save about 350,000 troops troops trapped in Dunkirk. Having borne heavy loss, German force called off the invasion of Britain and captured Yugoslavia and Greece in April, 1941. Until the cold winter, Hitler began the 'Operation Barbarossa' -the invasion of Russia. German force reached almost the capital Moscow but had to retreat due to dreadful winter there.

Japan made a surprise attack on US Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941 causing heavy loss of the American navy, 18 ships and 200 planes were destroyed and 3000 men were killed. This pulled the USA into violent war in the pacific. However, Japan had captured Singapore, Burma and Malaya by February, 1942. Then followed the Battle of Midway in June. The Japanese failed to make another surprise attack and had to retreat as the Americans began to advance.

The year 1943 AD gave a different turn to the war. Germans were badly defeated at Stalingrad in February. Italy surrendered in September and America won slow victory against the Japanese. Germans met humiliating defeat on June 6, 1944.

After months of preparation, Britain force had made powerful attacks and driven them from France and Belgium. As the Allied forces had entered Germany both from the west and east and reached the capital, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. But in the pacific Japan was still fighting. It would not easily yield. So America dropped atom bombs; first (Little Boy) over Hiroshima on August 6 and the second (Fat man) over Nagasaki on August 9. With the complete destruction of the two advanced cities Japan surrendered unconditionally on 14 August. Later on September 2, it signed an agreement called the Instrument of surrender.

World war II : Major causes

Major causes of world war II

World war II was fought between the axis consisting of Germany, Japan, and Italy and the Allies consisting of Great Britain, the United States, and USSR. France joined the allies on the very beginning day. The war was more widespread and devastating than world war I. This global war invited largest carnage and destruction in the world.

the primary cause of the world war II was the fret, humiliation and vengefulness of Germany. The league of Nations was established to prevent the further war but it could not. After 20 years of world war I, World war II commenced in 1939 AD and was fought for longer time till 1945 AD.

Major causes

Treaty of Versailles

The seeds of world war II were soon in the treaty of Versailles. Germany was extremely insulted by the treaty. Its empire was destroyed. Above all, Germany was not consulted in formulation of the treaty. The Germany feeling was never considered. When the French General read the terms, he said that there would be another war in twenty years. And it did happened so. Actually Germany was compelled to sign the treaty because foreign troops were present in Germany but it was vowed to take revenge.

Fanatical nationalism

After world war I, many European nations such as Germany had grown extreme sense of revenge on their enemies. The people became too much conscious of their nations and grew and extreme sense of patriotism. They gave unquestioning support to their rulers who exercised  absolute power and tried to regain the glory and greatness of their nations through territorial expansion. 

Rise of dictators

Admidst the situations of general dissatisfactions, economic hardship and unemployment, came Adolf Hitler to the power of Germany. He gave the slogan of extreme nationalism; the reunification of the pure German nation. He promised to regain the glory of Germany. The Germans, who had not forgotten the insult of the Treaty of Versailles, gave him tremendous support. They joined Nazi party. Hitler began to defy the treaty. Silencing opposition and spreading propaganda, he grabbed absolute power and started German militarization and armament. He began to reoccupy the lost territories. This brought confrontations with many European superpowers.

After the revolution of 1917 Ad, communists came to power in Russia and started influencing the world. In 1936 AD, Germany signed "Anti-communist pact" with Japan. The objective of this pact was to prevent the spread of communism in the world. In 1937 AD Italy joined the pact which was then called Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Alliance. Japan wanted to suppress the communist influence in China.

Japan was making rapid economic development and it needed market for its goods. So it also took the imperialistic policy. In 1931 AD it occupied Manchuria of China. By 1937 AD, it had won a very large part of China. As Germany and Italy had done, Japan also quitted the League of Nations leaving it all powerless and disarrayed.

Worldwide economic crisis

After world war I the whole world was seized with economic crisis. It was so because much had been wasted and most male youths had been killed in the war. So there was lack of labours to work in industries and agriculture. Starvation broke out in many war-ravaged areas. In this situation, the dictators such as Hitler and Mussolini could easily rise to power with their promises to give economic recovery through territorial expansions.

Failure of League of Nations 

The aim of the League of Nations was to settle the disputes of the world and maintain peace and security. But it could do nothing if a country disobeyed it. Though the US President Woodrow Wilson was the main architect, his country never joined the League. Germany, Italy, and Jpan also started attacking small and weak nations. Japan took possession of Manchuria and Italy captured Abyssinia (Ethiopia), but the League of Nations could do nothing. This further encouraged Japan. Hitler suspended the constitution and violated the Treaty of Versailles. He also occupied Rhineland and other territories lost in the former war. In this way the League of Nations completely failed and the war could not be prevented.

Spanish Civil War

Spain had a government of Liberals, Socialists and Communities. In 1936 when it tried to reform the land ownership and Catholic Church many army soldiers protested as rebel nationalists. They elected G.F. Franco as the leader and started fighting violently against the loyalists that favoured the government. The nationalists got support from Hitler and Mussolini while the loyalists from the Soviet Union. Eventually the nationalists won the Spanish Civil war in1939 and G.F. Franco came to power. In this way the Spanish war provided the European superpowers to test their weapons and strategy and thus it was the rehearsal of world war II.

Immediate cause

In 1939 AD Hitler demanded from Poland Danzig and the Polish Corridor which were given to Poland after the Treaty of Versailles but Poland refused. In the same year he signed a treaty with Russia. They agreed not to fight each other for ten years and to divide Poland between them. But on September 1, 1939 Hitler attacked Poland. It was 'blitzkrieg'-the lightning war. France and England demanded the withdrawal of Germany but in vain. Then declared war on Germany on behalf of Poland on September 3. This was the formal beginning of world war II.

world war I: Causes

Causes of world war I

World war I was the first human conflict with the biggest massacre in the world. Never before had human race fought such a devastating and contemptible war. This terrifying war was fought between two hostile groups competing for colonialism and imperialism. The war dtsrted in 1914 AD and lasted till 1918 AD. As the main warring nations, Britain, France, Russia, the United states and Italy fought Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. Innumerable lives and property were destroyed in the war. 

Major causes of the war

Secret treaties

A main cause of World War I were the secret treaties which had begun after Franco-Germany war. Otto Van Bismarck of Germany had taken a policy of expanding his territory by destroying France, etc. immediately after he became the chancellor in 1870. Accordingly, Germany attacked France and captured Alsace and Lorraine in 1871. In order to unally and isolate France, Bismarck signed  a secret treaty with Austria-Hungary in 1879 and with Italy in 1882. This is known as the Triple Alliance. Following the downfall of Bismarck, the first chancellor, France tried to rise again and signed a secret treaty with Russia in 1894 and with Britain in 1904. This is known as the Triple Entente. These treaties divided Europe into two hostile groups. Each group was suspicious of the other's motive. So, each began to strengthen their military force. Britain was anxious to see the increasing German force including the navy. So it had joined the alliance that France and Russia had made.

Otto van Bismarck

Competition for armaments

The tradition of armaments had begun from the French revolution. France started armament after it was defeated by Germany in 1870 AD. So Germany too, further strengthened its military force. For instance it had 4.2 million soldiers in 1914 AD. Apparently it was for security reason but, in fact, it was for war. Many European countries had become military camps. There was the environment of suspicion, fear and hatred. Every big country was proud of its military camps. Each country considered it and insult to surrender. This attitude was a major cause of world war I.

Extreme/fanatical nationalism

The unification of Italy was the result of nationalistic feeling. Other countries, too, were motivated by this feeling. Each wanted to surpass others in this field. It was the nationalistic feeling that caused competition between Germany and England to increase naval force. It was the same feeling that Germany took over the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and became enemy to France. Italy, too, wanted to take the territory where Italian was spoken.

Competition for colonies

In those days, every European nation wanted ro establish their power in other countries. England, France, Russia and Germany had their vast overseas colonies. They wanted to dominate more and more part of the world. They also needed more raw materials for their growing industries and markets to sell the mass products. But, they would be more hostile and unfriendlier to each other as everyone tried to establish their colony in a single territory. They had a cutthroat competition in course of strengthening their colonialism and imperialism. 

Role of Media

Sometimes, role of media deteriorates relations and cause conflicts. In the 19910s  European media were used for provocation and spreading propaganda. They circulated wrong messages. This practice not only increased hatred and hostility between nations but also made leaders and their public aggressive to their enemies. Military controlled Austro-Hungarian, Serbian and Germany media in particular were very ill-motivated and prejudiced. They provoked their citizens, grow bilateral hostility and increased the possibilities of war.

Balkan crisis

There wads a large Turk-controlled empire in the Balkan region. Turkey was gradually getting weaker and was thus known as the 

'Sick man of Europe'. Taking the advantage of declining Turk power, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro formed Balkan league and fought a war in 1912 AD against the mother country which was defeated. The war was known as the First Balkan War. But Bulgaria was not satisfied with the territory it got according to a treaty signed in England. Therefore, Bulgaria attacked its former allies in 1913 AD but was defeated. This is known as the Second Balkan War. Serbia later was seriously enraged by Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina. As a result, a secret organization called Black Hand Society was formed by serb nationalists who wanted the reunification of their nation. Black Hand was guided by its motto 'Unification or death'; 'Unity or Death'; Death of Tyranny!'

Immediate cause

The immediate cause of the war lay on the enmity between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. In 1908 AD Austria had annexed Bosnia Herzegovina (a part of Serbia) into its territory. Austria was trying to destroy Serbia at any cost. On June 28, 1914 AD, the Austrian Prince Archduke Franz Ferdinand along with his wife Sophie was on tour of Bosnia Herzegovina. Gavrilo Princip, a young member (19) of the Black Hand society shot the prince and his wife to death. Austria believed that the government of Serbia had hand in the murder. This event highly provoked the Austrian people. they began to prepare for war. On July 23, 1914 AD Austria put some conditions before Serbia demanding an immediate reply. 

Austria-Hungary wanted:

• Serbia to take full responsibility for the murder, though Princip was not Serbian but Bosnian. Austria claimed that the conspirators confessed to the murders being planned with Serbian approval and weapon.
• The right to police 'anti-Austrian' groups within Serbian.
• The right to prosecute these and other conspirators in Austrian courts.

The 48-hour ultimatum delivered to the Serbian foreign Ministry by the Austro-Hungarian ambassador to Serbia were very formidable (tough to deal with). However, Serbia conceded many of the conditions and was taking time for more considerations. It was consulting its allies including Russia. But Austria was not satisfied. The Austrian leaders and military officials were impatient for war. So on July 28, 1914 AD Austria attacked Serbia. This was the outbreak of the first World war because Serbia was backed (supported) by Britain and Russia.

Having fought for 4 years (1,565 days), Germany and its allies were badly defeated. German emperor William II fled to Holland leaving the country to be declared a republic.

World war I: Major Events and effects

Major events and effects of world war I

World war I was fought very violently. Machine guns, long-range artilleries, grenades, aeroplanes, armoured tanks, submarines and poisonous gas such as chlorine caused unbelievable casualties. The chlorine gas dissolves the lungs and kills in great agony. Armies fought in dreadful conditions such as the muddy trenches against the barbed wire fence. They would advance little through the no-man's land and soon had to retreat when 'enemies' attacked and advanced. Even the civilian population was not protected. Bombarding on cities killed many innocent people. As soldiers were killed and injured, older and younger men had to be dispatched. There wouldn't be any help easily available for the injured and killed.

In 1914 with appalling loss of life, Germany attacked Belgium and France but could not capture. In 1915 it captured the Polish capital of Warsaw. By 1916, it won many battles in European battlefronts. Italy joined the allies in the hope of territorial gains in may 1915. In 1917 Russian armies quitted the battlefields due to a revolution in their land. German attack on the US unarmed ships caused the United States to join Allies in 1917. With abundant support from the USA, the Allies began to make breakthroughs in 1918. Finally the central Powers surrendered in autumn 1918. German prisoners were captured and freed. German revolution declared it republic and its emperor fled to Holland. However, World War I was officially ended by an armistice signed in France on November 11 (at the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of eleventh month). 

Germany had to withdraw immediately from all occupied territories and surrendered all major weapons. Paris Peace Conference began on 18 January, 1919. Finally on June 28 1919, the treaty was signed with a proposal to institute the League of Nations. The treaty was designed by French Prime Minister  Clemenceau, British Prime minister Lloyd George George and US President Woodrow Wilson. It, however, could not be fair and sowed seeds of another world war. The League of Nations was also doomed to fail.

After the defeat of Germany in world war I, the treaty was signed between the victorious allies and Germany on June 28, 1919 in the Palace of Versailles in France. No consultation was made with Germany. Still Germany was compelled to sign. According to this treaty, Germany was blamed solely for the destruction and it was made to pay for the loss. Germany lost 13% of it's land and 6 million people. It had to cede the following territories to different nations as specified.

• Alsace and Lorraine to France
• Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium
• North Schleswig to Denmark
• Posen and west Prussia to Poland
• Upper Silesia to Poland
• Saar and Danzig area to the League of Nations
• The city of Memel to Lithuania, a new Baltic state
• All overseas colonies to the league of Nations

Palace of Versailles 

Restriction on Military

• German army was withdrawn from Rhineland; it was kept under Allied power for 15 years.
• Germany had to keep only 100,000 soldiers. New recruitment was restricted.
• Germany was not allowed to keep more than 24 warships.
• It was prohibited from manufacturing warships, tanks and aeroplanes.

Compensation

• Germany had to pay gold and other things worth 660 million pound for reparation.
• Coal production area of Saar was to be given to France for 15 years.

What is Trade diversification | How is trade diversification in Nepal?

Trade diversification in Nepal

What is trade diversification?

Simply, 'diversity' indicates to bring change in something to introduce variety. It means to make something diverse or varied. In the economic sense, it refers to develop a wider range of product or market by adding some varieties to the existing entity. Trade diversification is the process by which a business offers a range of different products or services. It opposes specialization in just one product or entity. In the state of being restricted to one place or country, trade diversification enables us to consider different places or country for the purposes of the trade. This is good for nation as it reduces the nation reliance on a specification economic sector. Trade diversification can be carried out in two ways.

• Region/Country wise diversification
• Commodity wise diversification

Region/Country wise diversification

Region/Country wise diversification means the expansion of trade of a product or a country to more geographical areas. It is an action of supplying and selling the goods produced in a region or a country to another region or country. It helps in the promotion of trade by minimizing trade deficit or loss. Goods can be imported or exported from many countries rather than relying on a particular country.

The trade is likely to yield better fostering the economy of a nation if it can afford to import or export goods from many countries instead of specializing in one. Nepal as a landlocked country was dependent almost entirely on India for trading. Partially, it had trade-ties with Tibet too. Landlockedness, open border, resembles in terms of culture, tradition and historical connection with India etc. are some major factors that contributed to limit our trade. The trade with overseas was almost nil. Having realized the fact that extravagant trade dependency on our neighbours prevented us taking from international trade, Nepal started showing concern about trade diversification from 3rd economic plan. Then Nepal started to extend it's foreign trade to overseas. In this process, Nepal tried to implement this concept from 2021/2022 BS. Nepal took stiffer principle of trade diversification from 4th five year plan. Nepal has been exporting goods to many countries in the world and earning foreign currencies nowadays. 

The popularity of Nepalese goods grew rapidly in international market. Recently, Nepal is exporting its production to many countries in addition to India and earning foreign currency.

Commodity wise diversification 

A country has to concentrate on commodity diversification in order to promote its foreign trade. It should not be limited with the production of new goods  and sale as per the demand of the world market will promote the foreign trade. If we see the trend of foreign trade of Nepal, in the past, Nepal used to expert limited goods. However, the commodity-wise diversification has been found to be increasing these days. Nepal used to export pulse, maize, wood, rice, etc. But nowadays, it has been exporting readymade garments, carpet, pulses, handicraft, leather, medicinal herbs, paper products, silver jewellery, tea, cardamom etc. It is the positive symptom of Nepal's foreign trade which has contributed to change the direction of trade. However, more has to be done to sparkle the possibilities of betterment. 

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Gautam buddha's Birthplace and History of Shakya Dynasty of Kapilvastu

Birthplace of Gautam Buddha and History of Shakya Dynasty

Origin of shakya dynasty

The king Okkaka used to rule over a state called saket of northern India during 18th century BC. The king Okkaka is considered to be the ancestor of Shakyas. The king had five queens. Among them, he had four princess and five princesses from eldest queen Bhatra. Then, the king fell in love with another lady and married her as sixth queen. A prince named Jantu was born from his youngest  queen. Due to the conspiracy and trickery of the youngest queen, the king decided to exile other princes and make her a crown prince.

The princes obeyed the king and left the kingdom for living in exile including five princesses. The exiled princes and princesses reached to be a beautiful place where Kapil, a great sage used to live. The sage suggested them to stay there by establishing a city. Then, they cleared the saal forest of the place and established a city called Kapilvastu, Kapil is the name of sage and vastu means place of dwelling. So, the meaning of kapilvastu is the settlement of the sage Kapil.

After few years, the king Okkaka sent his ministers to see the condition of exiled princes and princesses. The ministers reported the king that they were residing in a jungle called Shaka. The ministers also dwelt in a new city called Kapilvastu The eldest princess Priya was made rajmata in order to continue their nobility and traditional royal culture as there were people from various clans and culture and their risk of being mismatch and losing the family rituals. Other princes and princesses decided to marry each other to continue rhier generation. When it was heard by the king Okkaka, he felt dispirited and said to princes, "timiharu shakya chhau, nischaya pani shakya chhau". After that Shakya clan and Kapilvastu state were established according to the Buddhists scriptures Tripitika, Didhanikaya and Ambastha story. In this way, the king Okkaka was the ancestor of shakya clan. His eldest son Okkamukh became the founder king of Kapilvastu. In this way, Shakya clan ruled over kapilvastu state before the birth of Gautam Buddha and after his salvation too.

In kapilvastu, there was a king named Jayasen. Singhanu was his successor. He had a queen named Kanchana. He had five sons and one daughter from Kanchana. Suddhodhan was the the eldest one and became the king of Kapilvastu, an autonomous state in terai region of Nepal. He ruled there about 2,600 years ago. He was very popular among his countrymen. He had two queens Mayadevi and Prajapati. Lord Buddha was born as elder son from his first queen Mayadevi. His birth is believed to have been 563 BC. The place where Siddhartha Gautam was born is known as Lumbini. It is situated in Rupandehi district of Lumbini zone in the terai region of western Nepal. 

His second queen named Prajapati Gautami also gave birth to a son named Nanda Kumar and a daughter named Nanda Kumari. Shakyas were proud of their purity of blood and superiority of their clan. They used to consider themselves as descendants of Suryavansi Isvaku belonging to Gautam clan. They had married relationship with Koliya Shakyas at Devdaha. King Suddhodhan's aunt  was married to Suddhodhan, the king of shakya dynasty. Siddhartha Gautam also married with Yashodhara, daughter of saprabuddha. Saprabuddha was the son of Kolia king Anjan. After the birth of Siddhartha Gautam, emerging signs of divine power bodhisattva were seen in Kapilvastu according to the legend. The royal fortune tellers predicted that Siddhartha Gautam would enlightenment and provide new thought to the world.

After 294 years of the Mahaparinirvana of Gautam buddha and erected a commemorative pillar which is known as Ashoka pillar now. It is a historical pillar of Nepal. The height of the pillar is 6.7 meters where Hidabudhe Jaate Shakyamuniti is inscribed in Brahmi script. The meaning is "This is the birthplace of Gautam Buddha".

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Agricultural marketing in Nepal

Agricultural marketing in Nepal

What is Agricultural marketing?

In general terms, agricultural marketing means the sales and purchase of the agricultural products and goods. In other words, it refers to the place where the agricultural products are purchased and sold. Agricultural marketing involves a number of processes such as collection of agricultural products, quality, determination, selling and buying management, development of organized market, etc.

Characteristics of the Nepalese Agricultural marketing

Agricultural marketing has an important role in the Nepalese agriculture. The livings of the Nepalese farmers are determined by it. Yet, it is not in  a developed and organized form. Farmers are hardly benefited from it. 

1. Seasonal: As similar to agricultural production, it's marketing is also seasonal in the rural areas of Nepal. Agricultural production and marketing, both are seasonal activities in rural of Nepal. Farmers have lack of proper storage, so the agricultural products should be sold immediately after harvesting at any cost. Therefore, the market price becomes very low.
2. Unorganized: The management system of measurement, price control, quality maintenance and other facilities are unscientific in agricultural marketing of Nepal. Therefore there is lack of coordination between the farmers (producers) and the suppliers. Hence, the farmers are bound to sell the product in their own village to fulfill their daily consumption.
3. Inadequate market centres: Agricultural markets centres are found very few in Nepal. They are found comparatively less in the hills and the mountains. So, the farmers have to travel a long distances to reach market centres. However, the market days are fixed only few days in a month.
4. Small size of the market: The main features features of the Nepalese subsistence where the production is very low with less surplus. In such a situation, the farmers are discouraged to travel far in search of better price.
5. Price instability: The price of the agricultural products keeps on changing day by day in Nepal. Not only this, the price seems different on the same date at different places.

History of Nepal

Our ancestors 

Nepal is a unique country in the world with religious and cultural diversity. It is very rich country in art, culture, tradition and lifestyle. The unique features of our ancestors are our pride, glory and identity. The history of Nepal is divided into three periods- Ancient period, Medieval period, and Modern period. It has been found that the tradition, culture, and the lifestyle of the people have been gradually changing in course of time. The culture, tradition, norms, values and lifestyle developed by our ancestors are the unique guidelines and identities for the present generation. It is the prime responsibility of new generation to identify, preserve and promote them.

Unique culture

Nepal is very rich in culture with distinctive rites since ancient time. Most of the rites and rituals were developed during Malla period. Some of them are still in practice in our society. Chudakarma (shaving hair in Bratabandha), Eehi (Bel Bibaha in Newar community), Pumsavan (kuldevatako pooja-worshipping ancestors god), funeral rites (mrityu samskar), etc are the typical examples of such cultures.

Well managed social structure and Division of Castes

According to Hinduism, the traditional Nepalese society was divided into four major castes-Brahmin, Kshetri, Vaishya and Sudra. They used toinvolve in different occupations. However, there was no discrimination among the castes. The work division was made on the basis of their caste that gradually developed into culture.

Social, Religious practices and Lifestyle

There was a feeling of cooperation. They were supportive to each other. The supportive systems like exchanging goods, labour to fulfill the need practised by our ancestors are exemplary to us. They had faith in religion and were virtuous. They were guided by religion belief. They used to live by maintaining social harmony and religious tolerance. They used to love to preserve and promote art and culture by constructing religious sites, Pati Pauwa, temple, Gumba etc. The artistic structures made by ancestors are still our pride and identities. The society was based on agriculture. There was a trade relation with Tibet. People used to live in joint family. The distribution of land was uneven. There were enough Guthis for social welfare and activities. The education system was mainly guided by religious performance and practices. Religious trusts, temples, gurukul and gumbas were the main centres for education. Sanskriti language was recognized as royal language during ancient period. Newari and Maithili languages were also very popular in the country during medieval period. They used to observe festivals on the basis of religion and ability. People used to wear clothes of domestic product such as Dhaka topi, Daura suruwal(male), Gunyu cholo(female), Ghalek(female), etc.

Judicial system

In the ancient period, the judicial system was based on religions practiced in the society. The laws used to be formed and implemented according to the religion. There was no fair judicial system because the nature of punishment was based on caste and religion. Ram shah, the king of Gorkha abolished this judicial system and started fair judicial system in his country. There was even a usage to give clearance to accused person by swearing gods and goddesses. There were various posts to decide the criminal cases. Decentralization judicial system was to be practised. Panchasamunchchaya used to solve the local disputes. Dware (to look after local quarrel), Pradhan (to look after tole), Khardar (to give justice visiting the whole country) used to be appointed to solve the disputes another criminal cases.

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Present situation of minerals in Nepal

Present situation of minerals in Nepal

The department of Mines and Geology is responsibility for all types of geological survey, mineral exploration and administration of mining rules and regulations in Nepal. Nepal being a hilly nation has a large potentiality for the mineral resources. The department since it's establishment has been carrying out geological mapping, mineral exploration and feasibility studies of mineral based industries. In the process, many potential areas have remained virtually unexplored for mineral resources. Nepal possesses commercially important non-metallic mineral resources like limestone, dolomite, marble, magnesite, talc etc. The potential for finding economic gold gemstones and petroleum resources is high in the country. But, a detail exploration for those minerals and fuels is yet to be carried out.

Iron

Iron is the principal metal. It is extensively used for infrastructural development works, manufacture machineries, equipments, arms, agricultural tools, etc. Phulchoki, Those, Labdi khola, and Jirbang are the main known iron ore deposits. Phulchoki is the largest  iron deposit which is still remained untransformed into commercialization. It has been estimated that Phulchoki possesses 10.67 million ton irons.

Copper

Copper is another important metal which has multiple uses in this developing world. It is mainly used in electrical industries to produce electronic appliances, equipments, telecommunications equipment, copper wire, crafts, making alloys, utensils and other household purposes. It was mined traditionally in Nepal since many years.Copper occurrences/prospects are known in 107 localities. Small scale copper mines were operated in Gyazi, Okharbot and waspa till to the last decade. Old workings are known in different parts in Darchula, Bajhang, Bajura, Baglung, Gulmi, Tanahun, Gorkha, Makwanpur, Kavre, Ramechhap, Okhaldhunga, Dhankuta, Solukhumbu, Ilam and Taplejung districts.      

Lead and Zinc

Lead and Zinc occurrences/ prospects are reported from 49 localities in different parts of Nepal. In most of the cases, they are associated in the same deposits as in Larri(Ganesh Himal, Rasuwa), Labang-khairang(Makwanpur), Pangum (Solukhumbu), Salimar valley (Mugu/Humla), Phulchoki (Lalitpur), Sisha khani and kadebas (Baglung), Dhuwakot (Parbat), Barghare (Makwanpur), Khola khani (Taplejung), etc.

Gold

Gold is precious metal. Alluvial/placer gold are frequently wined from the river gravels/sediments from the major rivers like Mahakali, Chameliya, Seti, Karnali, Bheri, Rapti, Lungri kholaand Phagum khola (Rolpa), kaligandaki, Myagdi khola, Modi, Madi Marshyangdi, Trishuli, Budigandaki and sunkoshi. Primary gold occurences are known only from Lungi Khola area (Rolpa), Bangabagar, Gorang and Jamari Gad (Baitadi); Bamangaon (Dadeldhura). A Chinese team ahs also carried out a detail survey to detect the gold mines in Nepal. They have guaranteed that gold is mined in  different parts of the country. But, the mines are yet to be evaluated by detail exploration.

Limestone

Limestone is a main raw material of cement and is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. Among all non-metallic minerals, limestone is the basic elements to produce cement, has increased in the recent years. Limestone is in abundance in the country. Nepal can fully self-dependant on cement. In Nepal, the volume of limestone deposits (of cement grade) is believed to be over 1.25 billion metric tons, according to the Department sources.

Coal

Coal is a chief fuel after electricity. It is used as fuel to run Train, industries, and various factories. Coal is estimated to be found in various parts of the country like Dang, Kathmandu, Sindhuli, Salyan, Thak khola, Kailali, Kanchampur, Baglung, Chitwan, and Sunsari (Barah region).

Petroleum and Natural gas

Petroleum and natural gas is very important mineral resource. In Nepal, petroleum and natural gas is estimated to be found in various places like Kathmandu valley, Muktinath of Mustang, Paduka of Dailekh, Nepalgunj of Banke, Pyuthan, etc.

Magnesite

Magnesite is used to melt the iron and copper. It is estimated that khari dhunga of Dolakha possesses  10 crore metric ton. Some of the magnesite has been exvacated and exported to India. Some of the magnesite are estimated to be found in the areas; Sindhupalchwok, Sunkoshi, and Saptakoshi.

Talc

Talc is estimated that 15000 metric ton of talc  has been found in Chisapani of Gaighat.

Marble

Marble is made from a type of stone. It is used in making buildings. It has been abundantly found in Godawari of Kathmandu.


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